Feeds and Animal Nutrition

• "Forages for the Small Farm" Technical Note
• Book Review: The Small-Scale Manufacture of Compound Animal Feed
• Feed Analyses
• Review: Use of Trees by Livestock Series
• Forages Differ Greatly in Digestibility
• `Alfagraze', a Forage Alfalfa
• Buckwheat is a Fast Crop for Cool Areas
• Can Citrus Residue be used for Animal Feed?
• Is There a Benefit to Haymaking?
• Raising Pigs on Moringa Leaves
• Neem Seed as a Feed Ingredient
• How Should I Treat Soybeans So They Can be Fed to Animals?
• Sugar Can Be Used in Pig Diets

"FORAGES FOR THE SMALL FARM" TECHNICAL NOTE by Dr. Frank Martin addresses a topic about which we are occasionally asked and with which we have little first-hand experience. Though written with the needs of the small farmer in mind, this document probably best fits the needs of those with more than just a few animals to feed and who farm at least several hectares and perhaps even have some mechanized equipment. It addresses the following: the need for forages on the small farm; site selection; species selection; basic botany of grasses and legumes and the role both play in animal nutrition; the benefits and disadvantages of grazing verses "cut and carry" systems; general principles of forage management; and recommended forages for various sites and purposes. As ECHO carries relatively few forage species, an addenda has been prepared that lists sources for seed and further information.  

THE SMALL-SCALE MANUFACTURE OF COMPOUND ANIMAL FEED. Stephan von Malortie in Egypt asks: "...my main questions right now are in the field of feeding tables. I am trying to make guidelines for feedcrop use in different areas of the country."

I immediately thought of this book from the Natural Resources Institute. Chapters in this 87-page book include: Economic background to the industry, Nutrient requirements and feed formulation, Feed ingredients: characteristics and supplies, Outline of the feed manufacturing process, and Financial appraisal of small-scale production. These chapters are well-written, short, and to-the-point.

The 40 pages of appendices are especially useful. Appendix 1, Nutrient Specifications, includes detailed tables covering poultry, pig, ruminant, rabbit, and fish feeds. Appendix 2, Feed Formulations lists typical ingredients and proportions for small feed mills in Asia and Africa as well as normal maximum limits to ingredient inclusion. Appendix 3, Composition of raw materials, presents an exhaustive listing of the percentages of various nutrients in a wide variety of possible materials (from barley and buckwheat to spent brewer's yeast and feather meal). Another table lists the typical fatty acid composition of common fats and oils and a table of toxic or undesirable factors in feed ingredients (i.e. velvet bean contains trypsin inhibitors and needs to be heated to avoid problems, shea nut cake contains saponins and should make up no more than 2.5% of a feed). Appendix 4, Feed Processing, has diagrams of typical feed mills, tables comparing motor sizes and capital costs, a table of typical bulk densities of raw materials, etc. Appendix 5, Appraisal of Small-Scale Production Projects has a checklist of information to help decide project feasibility followed by detailed working tables for full financial analysis.

We have already found this publication a great aid in answering technical requests from our network. If your work includes the manufacture of your own animal feeds from locally available materials, this book may be a good addition to your library. Copies are available for œ10.00 from: Publications Distribution Office, NRI, Central Ave., Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB, UK. No charge is made for single copies sent to government, educational, research, and non-profit organizations working in countries eligible for British Government Aid (most developing countries). Use official titles when ordering. 

FEED ANALYSES. If you have been mixing your own animal feed rations, you might be interested in Ohio State University's feed analyses, although some knowledge of animal science would be necessary to interpret the results. Dairy feed standard analysis will measure dry matter, total crude protein, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium, sodium, manganese, iron, copper, zinc, neutral detergent fiber, estimated sulfur, and estimated energy for $21.00. The beef feed analysis ($20.00) is the same except it measures acid detergent fiber and does not estimate energy. Swine feed analysis includes dry matter, total crude protein, potassium, calcium, magnesium, zinc, manganese, copper and iron for $23.00.

Write the Ohio State University; R.E.A.L.; Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center; Wooster, OH 44691; USA; phone 216/263-3760. Prices quoted were in effect April 1995. Be sure to write them for current prices, detailed instructions on how to take samples, how much to send, etc. before submitting any samples. 

USE OF TREES BY LIVESTOCK SERIES. Nick Davison, press officer for the Natural Resources Institute, sent us this new series. The attractive 18-30 page booklets deal with a particular genus of tree (Gliricidia, Erythrina, Calliandra, Ficus, Cassia, Quercus, Acacia, and Prosopis species). One booklet discusses anti-nutritive factors found in trees used as feed. The goal of the series is to bring together the information on selected genera which can increase the fodder supply for ruminants.

The series should be an especially helpful tool for agriculture teachers. There are 800-900 species of Acacia and 44 species of Prosopis. Looking at them one at a time would be out of the question in the classroom. Considering each as a group, how they differ and what they have in common in terms of livestock feed, is a handy approach.

A few items from the booklet on anti-nutritive factors follows. Hydrogen cyanide is potentially the most serious anti-nutritional factor in fodder trees. Symptoms of cyanide poisoning are labored breathing, intense red conjunctiva (whites of the eyes), frothing at the mouth, bloat, convulsions and a staggering gait. Post-mortem examination often reveals a characteristic smell of almonds from the stomach contents. A full stomach tends to buffer the absorption of cyanide in ruminants, possibly due to its reaction with sugars or sulphur compounds to form harmless compounds. Poisoning is more likely to occur during drought or feed scarcity, when hungry animals consume large amounts of a particular feed over a short period of time. Avoid feeding pods that are wet. Physically separate potentially dangerous feeds from water sources. Cold water appears to encourage the release of cyanide. Mix potentially toxic feeds with sulphur or molasses, or feed them in conjunction with licks that contain these substances.

Do not be too quick to decide that a tree species can or cannot be used for fodder based on a report you read or even your own quick test. "There are many contradictions in the literature regarding the acceptability of fodder from trees and shrubs." Some possible reasons follow. Acceptability can change during the year. For example, milk goats consume more gliricidia when foliage is older with mature leaves. As the growing season progresses, the proportion of mature leaves increases and leads to improved consumption by goats. In some cases it may take several days for animals to accept a new feed, but once accustomed they may consume it readily. Preference for one feed over another does not mean that they will not eat it when it is the only choice. Within a single species, differences can exist between varieties, individual trees and even between parts of the same tree. Acceptability can be influenced by climate and soil conditions. For example, acceptability of the same varieties of Stylosanthes spp. in Australia varies greatly between the sandy, infertile soils of one region and the fertile soils of another.

The booklets are L2 each. Groups working with community development in countries eligible for British aid can request single free copies by writing Publications Distribution Office, NRI, Central Avenue, Chatham Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB, UK. 

FORAGES DIFFER GREATLY IN DIGESTIBILITY. As a general rule, tropical forages tend to have more lignin than do temperate forages. The lignin is not only indigestible but also reduces the digestibility of some of the cellulose in the plant. This lower digestibility causes the material the ruminant eats to remain in the rumen for a longer time. The result is that the animal not only is getting less from what it eats but it cannot eat more until the rumen empties. A profitable area of research is developing varieties of forages or introducing new species which give greater yields and have a greater digestibility and a better balance of nutrients. The lushness of a field of tropical grass can be deceiving.

For information or seeds for tropical pastures I most often refer to Better Pastures for the Tropics updated in 1992 by Frank Sauer and Sons, P.O. Box 117, Rockhampton 4700, Queensland, AUSTRALIA. This 77-page, glossy, magazine-size book with many color pictures and line drawings is both attractive and instructive. At A$20 (about US$15), it is still a considerable bargain. Chapters include improving tropical and subtropical pastures, establishing pastures, selecting species and mixes, seed quality, management of improved pastures, pasture grasses, and pasture legumes. They also have sowing guide tables that list rainfall range, seeds per kg, sowing rate, and tolerance to drought, water logging, frost and low fertility. When writing them be sure to ask for their seed price list. I know of no other source for many of these seeds.

A Guide to Better Pastures for the Tropics and Sub-Tropics was first published in 1980. (In May 1995, a new edition is under revision.) The foreword says it "is now well established as an elementary text" on the subject. The chapter titles are similar to the Sauers book, except for one on pasture species for irrigation or high altitude country. It has fewer pictures but appears to have more text and perhaps to cover more plants. For both books and many related, more specific publications, ask for the current booklist from the Tropical Grassland Society of Australia, Inc., c/o CSIRO, 306 Carmody Road, St. Lucia, Queensland 4067, AUSTRALIA. Credit card orders can be made by phone (07-3770209) or fax (07-3713946). 

'ALFAGRAZE,' A FORAGE ALFALFA. Many of us know alfalfa as a nutritious, temperate, leguminous, hay crop. We usually do not think of it as a species to be grazed. After 12 years of testing and development, scientists at the University of Georgia have developed the high yielding, grazing tolerant variety called 'Alfagraze'. This cultivar is based on a broad genetic base of 22 cultivars and 1,100 introductions, but was developed for the dual purpose of grazing and hay production for farmers in the States. We do not know how it will do overseas. Dr. Clarence Bryner, a consultant in pasture projects, believes it merits trial and has purchased enough to enable our readers to give it a try. To stand any chance of success at all the pH of your soil must be over 6.5 and you must be able to protect the alfalfa from grazing animals until it reaches full maturity. (After establishment it can be kept grazed to 4 inches/10 cm.) If your work involves peasant farmers, you know the pH of your soil to be over 6.5 and you can protect a trial from grazing, we can send you a small amount of seed. 

BUCKWHEAT IS A FAST CROP FOR COOL AREAS. One of the most important questions faced by our readers is how to feed animals when farmers cannot purchase commercial rations. Please write us about your personal experiences in this area so we can share your ideas with the rest of ECHO's network.

John Troesle says that he gets a crop of buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) in about two months in Monte Verde, Costa Rica. They are near the "cloud forest" at something over 3,000 feet (1000 m). Potentially this could give several crops per year. It does best in cool, humid climates and is known for being disease-free. It is an excellent crop for beekeepers too. It is normally grown in northern temperate countries. In parts of Poland and Russia it is a basic item in human diets, but is used mostly for animal feed in the States. However, I had sourdough buckwheat pancakes nearly every morning during winters when I was growing up in Ohio and still love them (although those who did not grow up with them don't seem to like my pancakes as much as I do!).

I asked Dr. Hill at N. C. State University about its usefulness in animal feed. It is not as palatable as most cereals, so should not be used in more than 1/3 of the ration. It is best to grind it for all animals except for poultry, which apparently do well eating it whole. It is a substitute for grain in dairy rations. The nutritional value is about 10-15% less than oats. In the States yields range up to 40 bushels per acre. When used in too high a concentration in pig rations it makes soft pork. This means that fats are too unsaturated and tend to be runny. (Because unsaturated fats are said to be less likely to lead to high cholesterol levels I wonder if pork that is more unsaturated might not be a great thing for human nutrition.) If you are in a region where it is cool and moist, but with no frost, for at least two months, this might be an interesting crop to try. 

CAN CITRUS RESIDUE BE USED FOR ANIMAL FEED? Someone in our network asked us this question. The following is abstracted from a University of Florida bulletin "Citrus Feeds for Beef Cattle." Although the bulletin is directed toward cattle, similar results would probably be found with other ruminants. To the best of my knowledge the residues are not fed to monogastric animals such as pigs or chickens, because much of the material would be indigestible.

Dried citrus pulp is high in calcium and digestible energy, but low in digestible protein and phosphorus. (What is the difference between, for example, "digestible" energy and just plain energy? Just because something is present in a food does not mean an animal's digestive system can make use of it. Only the digestible protein is available to an animal; the rest is excreted in the manure.)

When good quality citrus pulp makes up no more than 40% of the ration, and is properly supplemented with protein and phosphorus, it has a feeding value 85-90% of shelled corn. It is highly palatable, i.e. is readily eaten. (We have purchased beef feed containing citrus residue. The smell was wonderful.)

Citrus pulp is classified as a "bulky concentrate feed" because it is a bulky material that is also relatively high in digestible energy. Because it is relatively low in protein (approximately 6%) it is primarily an "energy feedstuff with roughage properties." The bulkiness of citrus residue limits how far it can be transported economically. The volume can be greatly reduced by pelletizing. Its density can be increased from 13 pounds per cubic foot to 42. The reduced volume not only makes transportation less expensive, but also cattle can hold more and might gain a bit faster.

Dried citrus meal (the material that passes through sieves while dried citrus pulp is being made) can be used as a substitute for cottonseed or soybean meal.

The more relevant question for most of our readers, who will not have the facilities to process citrus waste, is the feeding value of fresh wet pulp. It is not widely used today in the States because of the expense of transporting and handling a material containing 70-85% water. Fresh grapefruit was fed routinely by Florida farmers before the dried product became available. Fresh grapefruit is more palatable than orange pulp.

The greater the water content of the pulp the lower the nutritional value. It is basically a carbohydrate (energy) feed, so supplements are necessary. If fed in a feedlot, supplements must include protein, a dry carbohydrate material, a source of roughage, vitamin A and minerals. If fed as a supplement to pasture, it is important to also feed protein and minerals. During the 1940s, several experiments were done on making silage from citrus waste. Including some hay or sugarcane improved the quality and palatability. 

IS THERE A BENEFIT TO HAYMAKING? When compared to making hay, much less work is involved if livestock are simply allowed to graze on dead grasses during the dry season. "A major benefit of haymaking is that the nutritional value of green grass hay is substantially better than standing brown grass. Nitrogen content was on the average more than 50% higher in hay, and in vitro dry matter digestibility of hay [Ed: a laboratory test to estimate how much of the material a ruminant animal can digest] was 60% greater in a study conducted by the International Livestock Center for Africa." (Taken from the International Ag-Sieve #6, 1992.) 

RAISING PIGS ON MORINGA LEAVES is a system developed by missionary Paul Ronk in Jeremie, Haiti. Some people object to raising pigs because "pigs eat people food" and compete with humans. Paul tested and introduced a new feeding system based on moringa and leucaena leaves.

Every pig in Haiti was killed in 1981 because of the threat of an outbreak of the highly contagious African swine fever. Paul Ronk first went to Haiti to assist the U.S.-supported repopulation efforts which began in 1985. He found that the intensive production systems promoted along with the new pigs taken to Haiti were unsuitable for most Haitian farmers. Farmers were taught to use commercial hog feeds which were not too expensive initially but soon were priced far beyond the reach of small farmers. Paul witnessed many failures in the reintroduction projects due to the lack of adequate feed for the animals.

In 1991, the Ronk family moved to Jeremie in southwest Haiti. There were no pigs in the area when Paul arrived, so he decided to design and test a pig production system appropriate for the Haitian farmers. Before going to Haiti in 1987, he had spent several days at ECHO, and what he learned about trees with nutritious leaves led him to design a leaf-based feeding system which did not compete with humans for food. Four years later, the program has distributed 418 pigs. He estimates that now there are 5000 pigs in an 80-mile radius of Jeremie. Paul says that he must now address transport and marketing.

Regular food supply is critical to the health and successful raising of pigs. Farmers who wish to receive a pig are required to attend two weeks of training in which they learn the leaf-based feeding system, management of the trees, and basic veterinary care for their animal. They take home seeds of moringa (M. oleifera) and leucaena (L. leucocephala) for planting, and in six months an extensionist makes a field check on their farms to make sure the trees have become established. Paul reports that farmers have little trouble maintaining these species in his area. Farmers must have 100 trees each of both species before they receive their pig.

Farmers have a brief refresher course on veterinary care, then return home with a 12-week-old gilt (female pig) which weighs 30-40 pounds (13.6-18 kg). Monthly extension visits are made to each farm. Gilts reach 200 pounds (90.7 kg) in 12-14 months, at which time they are bred to selected boars. Piglets are born in 150 days; these pigs average 7 to a litter, while the world average is 8 and traditional Haitian pigs (before 1981) averaged only 3. The female pick of the litter is taken back to the mission at 8 weeks (about 20 lbs/9 kg), where it is nourished on commercial feeds for 3-4 weeks, until it is given to another farmer and the cycle begins again. Paul mentioned that the few weeks of commercial feed is not necessary, but is just a nutritional boost for the pig.

Moringa has many advantages in this system. Not only is it extremely nutritious and common in the area, it also withstands frequent severe prunings and can be cut short yet out of the reach of goats. Approximately 30 moringa trees, 10 leucaena trees, and a small quantity of other leaves such as banana and yam are needed to support each pig. The optimum diet in this system is about 70% moringa, 10% leucaena, and 20% other leaves. It is possible to feed pigs 100% moringa, but it is important that the diet not contain more than 30% leucaena, as the toxins have negative effects from infertility to death when given in high quantities. (Pigs with leucaena toxicity are identified by hair loss, a malnourished look, and inability to breed. If this happens, feed no more leucaena for 3 months and give high-protein feeds.)

Paul reports that the meat from these pigs is lean and tastes the same as pigs raised on other feeds. He describes the meat of sugarcane-fed hogs as fatty-watery. If sugarcane must be fed to the animals, it needs to be finely chopped--otherwise they expend more energy in chewing than they gain from calories. Dried leaves may make better feed, but Paul has found the drying process too laborious to justify the benefit in his situation. If you have questions for Paul Ronk, write him at Lynx Air International, P.O. Box 407139, Ft. Lauderdale, FL 33340, USA. ECHO will be EXTREMELY interested to learn of your results and/or innovations if you try this system. 

NEEM SEED AS A FEED INGREDIENT. As more and more neem trees, Azadirachta indica, are planted in reforestation projects around the world, large quantities of neem seed are becoming available. We have written before of the usefulness of neem oil in making a home-grown spray for insects. Now four Nigerian scientists have shown that the ground seeds can replace up to 28% of the corn and cotton seed meal in a rabbit ration. (The Journal of Applied Rabbit Research, vol. 13, pp 125-126, 1990. We can send a copy of the article upon request.)

Fresh neem fruits were soaked for one day, after which the pulp was removed manually and discarded. The seeds were washed, dried several days, then ground. Four diets were prepared, each calculated to contain 18% protein. Each diet was fed to a set of nine rabbits and statistical studies were made of the results.

      Feed Ingredient       Diet          Composition (%)

      Neem Seed Meal          0         10       20       30
      Corn                   54         45       36       27
      Cotton Seed Meal       18         17       16       15
      Fish Meal               2          2        2        2
      Blood Meal              2          2        2        2 
      Rice Hulls             20         20       20       20
      Bone Meal               1          1        1        1
      Limestone               1          1        1        1
      Salt                    0.5        0.5      0.5      0.5
      Vitamin/mineral mx      0.5        0.5      0.5      0.5
         Total              100        100      100      100

      Number of Rabbits       9          9        9        9
      Avg. Daily gain(g)     12.1       14.5     11.1      2.14
      Avg. Daily Feed 
         Consumption (g)     69         74       74       49
      Deaths                  0          0        0        3

The statistical analysis showed that the greater daily gain with 10% neem seed meal is statistically significant. The authors speculate that the foul-smelling odor of neem seed meal and bitter taste account for the lesser amount of feed eaten with the highest level of neem.

Note that in these experiments the entire seed was ground. Many farmers might prefer to extract the oil first. This would presumably remove some of the bitter tasting substances. The extracted meal would contain a higher percent of protein, but less energy. Without the oil, the extracted neem seed would presumably more closely resemble the cotton seed meal (meals have had the oil removed) than corn. I would speculate that it could replace cotton seed meal or even soybean meal. 

HOW SHOULD I TREAT SOYBEANS SO THEY CAN BE FED TO ANIMALS? Dick Both in Haiti asked us this question. Like many of you, he has found varieties of soybeans that do quite well. They are one of the best sources of protein supplement for animals, a difficult problem on the remote, small farm. Chickens and pigs, for example, are supposed to be fed over 15% protein, yet even a pure corn diet would not go over 10%. Raw soybeans, however, contain a substance called a trypsin inhibitor. It renders the enzyme trypsin incapable of digesting food. This helps protect soybeans from pests, but is a serious nutritional problem.

Commercially, the oil is expelled from soybeans and the meal is heated. The heat destroys the inhibitor. Not many of you will have the equipment to expel oil. I asked Dr. Charles Hill in the Poultry Science Dept. at North Carolina State University for advice. He said that they use an autoclave, heating ground soybeans in about a 1 inch layer for 15 to 20 minutes at 15 psi. He thought that if you could rig up a device to provide steam heat at atmospheric pressure, 30 to 60 minutes would be adequate. It is best to grind the beans first. Dr. Garren at Western Carolina University said he has found that 10% raw soybeans was acceptable in rations for laying hens.

Several of you have asked for a commercial appropriate technology oil expeller. You might want to write to S. P. Engineering Corp., P. O. Box 218, 79/7, Latouche Road, Kanpur, INDIA. (They have several models of "table" oil expellers which were designed for cottage industries. Models require either a 3 or 5 horse power motor.) A source of information about the Sundhara village oil expeller and other designs is FAKT, c/o M. Dietz, R. Metzler, or C. Zarate, Buro Furtwangen, Stephan Blattmann Str. 11, 78120 Furtwangen, GERMANY; fax 49 772 35373. 

SUGAR CAN BE USED IN PIG DIETS. I do not know how cost effective this would be, but with the depressed prices of sugar it might be of interest to you. The April 1986 issue of Agricultural Science Digest summarized a report in Australian Agriculture that pigs will grow faster and produce a better quality carcass if they eat plenty of sugar. Sugar was used to replace the cereal content of a normal ration. Pigs were switched to a 75% sugar and 25% soybean, meat and blood meal plus trace elements diet when they weighed 25 kg. Pigs on the sugar diet reached their 80 kg slaughter weight 10 days earlier than those fed conventional rations (710 g weight gain per day compared to 612 g). The carcasses of the sugar-fed pigs was 80% edible compared to a more normal 75% for pigs fed the control diet. The authors point out that because sugar has no fiber content, protein sources that are too high in fiber to be used normally in pig rations can now be used. (The only problem with the low-fiber diet was some diarrhea the first day.)